History

IBM designed IMS with Rockwell and Caterpillar starting in 1966 for the Apollo program. IMS's challenge was to inventory the very large bill of materials (BOM) for the Saturn V moon rocket and Apollo space vehicle.

The first "IMS READY" message appeared on an IBM 2740 terminal in Downey, California, on 14 August 1968. IMS is still going strong 40 years later and, over time, has seen some interesting developments as IBM System/360 technology evolved into the current z/OS and System z9 and z10 technologies. For example, IMS supports the Java programming language, JDBC, XML, and, since late 2005, Web services (though JDBC, XML or Web Services require licensing additional software from IBM). IMS Connect comes with version 9 and provides a TCP/IP interface to Message Processing Programs running in IMS Message Processing Regions.

Vern Watts is IMS's chief architect. Watts joined IBM in the late 1950s and, as of this writing in mid-2005, still works (at least "unofficially") at IBM's Silicon Valley development labs.[citation needed] He has continuously worked on IMS since the 1960s.

Database

The IMS Database component stores data using a hierarchial model, which is quite different from IBM's later released relational database, DB2. In IMS, the hierarchical model is implemented using blocks of data known as segments. Each segment can contain several pieces of data, which are called fields. For example, a customer database may have a root segment (or the segment at the top of the hierarchy) with fields such as phone, name, and age. Child segments may be added underneath another segment, for instance, one order segment under each customer segment representing each order a customer has placed with a company. Likewise, each order segment may have many children segments for each item on the order. Unlike other databases, you do not need to define all of the data in a segment to IMS. A segment may be defined with a size of 40 bytes but only define one field that is six bytes long as a key field that you can use to find the segment when performing queries. IMS will retrieve and save all 40 bytes as directed by a program but may not understand (or care) what the other bytes represent. In practice, often all data in a segment may map to a COBOL copybook. Besides DL/I query usage, a field may be defined in IMS so that the data can be hidden from certain applications for security reasons. The database component of IMS can be purchased standalone, without the transaction manager component, and used by systems such as CICS.

There are three basic forms of IMS hierarchical databases:

"Full function" databases

* Directly descended from the Data Language Interface (DL/I) databases originally developed for Apollo. Full function databases can have primary and secondary indexes, accessed using DL/I calls from your application program, like SQL calls to DB2 or Oracle.
* Full function databases can have a variety of access methods, although Hierarchical Direct (HDAM) and Hierarchical Indexed Direct (HIDAM) dominate. The other formats are Simple Hierarchical Indexed Sequential (SHISAM), Hierarchical Sequential (HSAM), and Hierarchical Indexed Sequential (HISAM).
* Full function databases store data using VSAM, a native z/OS access method, or Overflow Sequential (OSAM), an IMS-specific access method that optimizes the I/O channel program for IMS access patterns. In particular, OSAM performance benefits from sequential access of IMS databases (OSAM Sequential Buffering).

"Fast path" databases

* Fast Path databases are optimized for extremely high transaction rates. Data Entry Databases (DEDBs) and Main Storage Databases (MSDBs) are the two types of fast path databases. Neither provide any indexing. Virtual Storage Option (VSO) DEDBs can replace MSDBs in modern IMS releases, so MSDBs are gradually disappearing.

High Availability Large Databases (HALDBs)

* IMS V7 introduced HALDBs, an extension of IMS full function databases to provide better availability, better handling of extremely large data volumes, and, with IMS V9, online reorganization to support continuous availability. (Third party tools exclusively provided online reorganization prior to IMS V9.) A HALDB can store in excess of 40 terabytes of data. [1]


Fast path DEDBs can only be built atop VSAM. DL/I databases can be built atop either VSAM or OSAM, with some restrictions depending on database organization. Although the maximum size of a z/OS VSAM dataset increased to 128 TB a few years ago, IMS still limits a VSAM dataset to 4 GB (and OSAM to 8 GB). This "limitation" simply means that IMS customers will use multiple datasets for large amounts of data. VSAM and OSAM are usually referred to as the access methods, and the IMS "logical" view of the database is referred to as the database "organization" (HDAM, HIDAM, HISAM, etc.) Internally the data are linked using 4-byte pointers or addresses. In the database datasets (DBDSs) the pointers are referred to as RBAs (relative byte addresses).

Collectively the database-related IMS capabilities are often called IMS DB. IMS DB has grown and evolved over nearly four decades to support myriad business needs.

Transaction Manager

IMS is also a robust transaction manager (IMS TM, also known as IMS DC) — one of the "big three" along with CICS and BEA Tuxedo. A transaction manager interacts with an end user (connected through VTAM or TCP/IP, including 3270 and Web user interfaces) or another application, processes a business function (such as a banking account withdrawal), and maintains state throughout the process, making sure that the system records the business function correctly to a data store. Thus IMS TM is quite like a Web application, operating through a CGI program (for example), to provide an interface to query or update a database. IMS TM typically uses either IMS DB or DB2 as its backend database. When used alone with DB2 the IMS TM component can be purchased without the IMS DB component.

IMS TM uses a messaging and queuing paradigm. An IMS control program receives a transaction entered from a terminal (or Web browser or other application) and then stores the transaction on a message queue (in memory or in a dataset). IMS then invokes its scheduler on the queued transaction to start the business application program in a message processing region. The message processing region retrieves the transaction from the IMS message queue and processes it, reading and updating IMS and/or DB2 databases, assuring proper recording of the transaction. Then, if required, IMS enqueues a response message back onto the IMS message queue. Once the output message is complete and available the IMS control program sends it back to the originating terminal. IMS TM can handle this whole process thousands (or even tens of thousands) of times per second.

Application

Prior to IMS, businesses and governments had to write their own transaction processing environments. IMS TM provides a straightforward, easy-to-use, reliable, standard environment for high performance transaction execution. In fact, much of the world's banking industry relies on IMS, including the U.S. Federal Reserve. For example, chances are that withdrawing money from an automated teller machine (ATM) will trigger an IMS transaction. Several Chinese banks have recently purchased IMS to support that country's burgeoning financial industry. Reportedly, IMS alone is a US$1 billion per year business for IBM.[citation needed]

Today IMS complements DB2, IBM's relational database system, introduced in 1982. In general, IMS performs faster than DB2 for a given task, but requires more programming effort to design and maintain.

MySQL is a software management system SQL database (in English: database management system) or the DBMS that multithread, multi-user, with around 6 million installations worldwide. MySQL AB makes MySQL available as a free software license under the GNU General Public License (GPL), but they also sell under a commercial license for cases where their use does not match the use of the GPL.

Is not the same with projects such as Apache, where software developed by the general community, and the copyright to the source code owned by their respective authors, MySQL is owned and sponsored by a commercial company MySQL AB of Sweden, which holds the copyright on almost all the code source. Both the Swedish and one Finnish, which is founded MySQL AB: David Axmark, Allan Larsson, and Michael "Monty" Widenius.


MySQL is a relational Database Management System (RDBMS) that is distributed free under the GPL license (General Public License). Where every person is free to use MySQL, but is not a derivative of a closed-source or commercial. MySQL is a derivative one of the main concepts in the database since a long time, namely the SQL (Structured Query Language). SQL is a concept of operation of the database, especially for the election or selection and income data, which allows the operation of the data easily done automatically. The reliability of a database system (DBMS) can be known from the way it works in the Optimizer process SQL commands, which are made by users and application programs. As the database server, MySQL can be considered more superior than the other database servers in the data query. This proved to queries made by single users, the speed of MySQL queries can be ten times faster than PostgreSQL, and five times faster than the box. In addition, MySQL also has several distinctive, among others:

1. 1. Portability

MySQL can run on a variety of stable operating system like Windows, Linux, FreeBSD, Mac OS X Server, Solaris, Amiga, and many more.

1. 2. Open Source

MySQL is distributed open-source (free), under the GPL license so it can be used freely.

1. 3. Multi

MySQL can be used by several users at the same time without any problems or conflict.

1. 4. Performance Tuning

MySQL has a stunning speed in handling queries simple, in other words, can process more SQL per unit of time.

1. 5. Column types

MySQL has a type of column that is very complex, such as signed / unsigned integer, float, double, char, text, date, timestamps, and others.

1. 6. Command and Functions

MySQL functions and operators have the full support of the Select and Where in the query.

1. 7. Security

MySQL has several layers of securities such as the level of subnetmask, host name, and permits the user to access the licensing system and play the encrypted password.

1. 8. Scalability and Limits

MySQL database capable of handling large-scale, with the number of records of more than 50 million and 60 thousand table and 5 billion lines. In addition, the limit index that can be reached 32 index on each table.

1. 9. Connectivity

MySQL can connect with the client to use TCP / IP protocols, Unix socket (UNIX), or named pipes commands (NT).

1. 10. Localization

MySQL can detect the error message on the client by using more than twenty languages. Nevertheless, the language is not included therein.

1. 11. Interface

MySQL has the interface (interface) to various applications and programming languages using the API (Application Programming Interface).

1. 12. Clients and tools

MySQL is equipped with various tools that can be used for database administration, and on each tool that is included instructions online.

1. 13. The structure of the table

MySQL has a table structure that is more flexible in dealing with ALTER TABLE, compared to other databases such as PostgreSQL or Oracle.

Management comes word from the language of ancient ménagement France, which has the meaning of art implement and manage. Management has not yet established a definition and universally accepted. Mary Parker Follet, for example, defines management as a complete art work through other people. This definition means that a manager's duty to set and lead others to achieve organizational goals. Dorothy W. Griffin defines management as a process of planning, organizing,, and control of resources to achieve goals (Goals) effective and efficient. Effective means that the goal can be achieved in accordance with the planning, while efficient, which means that the tasks are carried out properly organized, and in accordance with the schedule.

Manager is someone who is working with other people through mengoordinasikan activities in order to reach their target organization.

History

Many difficulties occurred in the history of track management. However, it is known that knowledge management has been there since thousands of years ago. This is evidenced by the pyramid in Egypt. The pyramid was built by more than 100,000 people for 20 years. [1] Giza pyramid will not be successful if there is no built-person regardless of what name to the manager when the plan is-what should be done, organize people and raw materials, lead and directing the workers, and enforcing certain control to ensure that the Israeli done according to plan.
Pyramids in Egypt. Development may be pyramid is not materialize without a plan, organize and why the workers, and to control development.

Management practices can be witnessed during the years 1400-an town in Venice, Italy, when it became the center of economy and trade there. Venice residents to develop the company's initial business forms and perform many activities that commonly occur in the modern organization at this time. For example, weapons warehouses in Venice, ships, the war was launched along the canal and on each stop, raw materials and halyard added to the ship. This is similar to assembly-line model (assembly line), which was developed by Ford Hanry up to the car-car. In addition to the assembly line, people have Venice storage and warehousing system to monitor the content, management of human resources to manage the work force, and accounting system to track income and expenses. [2]

Prior to the 20th century, the two important events in knowledge management. The first event occurred in 1776, when Adam Smith published a classic economic doctrine, The Wealth of Nations. In the book, he raised the economic benefits to be obtained from the division of labor organization (division of Labor), which details the work into tasks that are specific and repeated. By using the industry as a pin factory example, Smith said that with ten people each perform specific work-pin companies can produce more than 48,000 brooch in the day. However, if each person working alone completing each section of work, is very powerful when they are able to pin the ten day. Smith concluded that the division of labor can increase productivity by (1) increasing the skills and dexterity of each worker, (2) save time which in turn task, and (3) create machines and other discoveries that can save labor.

Two important events that affect the development of knowledge management is the Industrial Revolution in England. Industrial Revolution to mark the start of the use of the machine, replace human labor, resulting in the movement of production from houses toward a special place called the factory. This resulted in the movement of managers when it requires a theory that can help them predict demand, ensure adequate supply of raw materials, the task to subordinates, directing day-to-day activities, and other, so that knowledge management began to be developed by experts.

In the early 20th Century, a French industrialist named Henry Fayol to the idea of five main functions of management: plan, organize, govern, mengoordinasi, and control. Fayol ideas and then begin to be used as the framework for teaching science book management in mid-1950, and continues until now.

Other important contributions came from German experts sosilogi Max Weber. Weber describes an ideal type of organization known as the bureaucratic form of organization, which was characterized by the division of labor, hierarchy, which is defined with clear rules and provisions of a detailed, and a number of relationships Impersonal. However, Weber realized that the form of "bureaucratic ideal" that does not exist in reality. He describes the type of organization with the purpose of making it as a platform to theorize about how the job can be done in large groups. The theory is an example of structural design for many large organizations today. [3]

Further development occurred in the 1940's when Patrick Blackett melahirlkan science research operation, which is a combination of theory with the theory mikroekonomi statistics. Research operations, often known as the "Science Management", the scientific approach to try to resolve the problems in management, particularly in the areas of logistics and operations. In 1946, Peter F. Drucker, often referred to as Mr. Science Management-publish one of the earliest books on applied management: "The concept of Corporations" (Concept of the Corporation). This book appears on the idea of Alfred Sloan (chairman of General Motors), which assigns research about the organization.

Management theory

Scientific management
Frederick Winslow Taylor.

Scientific management, or in English called scientific management, first dipopulerkan by Frederick Winslow Taylor in a book entitled Principles of Scientific Management in the year 1911. In the book, heard Taylor's scientific management is "the use of scientific methods to determine the best way to finish a job." Some authors such as Stephen Robbins consider publishing the book this year as a year lahirya modern management theory.

Ideas about the use of scientific methods when Taylor felt less satisfied with ketidakefesienan workers in the company. Ketidakefesienan it appears because they use a variety of different techniques for the same job, there is virtually no standard at work there. In addition, workers tend to take easy job. Taylor argues that the results from workers that only a third of which should be. Taylor then, for 20 years, strive correct the situation by applying the scientific method to find a "best technique" in completing each job.

Based on that experience, Taylor make a clear guidance on how to improve efesiensi production. Guidelines are:

1. Kembangkanlah a science for each element of a job, which will replace the old method that is speculative.
2. In science, and then choose latihlah, ajarilah, or kembangkanlah these workers.
3. Samalah work seriously with the workers for ensuring that all work carried out in accordance with the principles of science that has developed overnight.
4. Divide the work and responsibility are almost evenly between management and workers. Management take over all the work that is more suitable for him than for the workers.

Guidelines for this drastic change patterns of thought that when the management. If workers choose their own jobs and train themselves as they are, Taylor proposes that manajemenlah must have jobs and melatihnya. Management also recommended to take over jobs that are not in accordance with the workers, especially the planning, organizing, setting in motion, and control. This is different to previous thinking where do pekerjalah the task.

Scientific management and further developed by a husband and wife Frank and Lillian Gilbreth. Both are interested in the idea after listening to Taylor Seriously on a professional meeting.

Gilbreth family successfully create mikronometer that can record every movement made by the workers and the length of time spent to make every movement. Movement futile escape from the naked eye observation can be identified with this tool, and then removed. Gilbreth family also prepared a classification scheme to give the name of seventeen basic hand movements (such as search, holding, holding), which they call Therbligs (from the name of their families, Gilbreth, who reversed spelled with the letter remain th). Scheme allows families Gilbreth analyze how a more precise elements of each movement of workers.

Schemes that they get from their observation of the way the preparation of bricks. Previously, Frank worked as a building contractor found that the workers do a 18 for the movement to install brick exterior and 18 interior to the movement. Through research, it was the resistance movements that do not need so that the movement needed to install the brick exterior reduced from 18 movement as 5 movement. Meanwhile, for the brick interior, it reduces drastically from 18 to movement into 2 movements only. By using the techniques Gilbreth, carpenters raw materials can be more productive and reduced kelelahannya the end of the day.

The theory of general administration

Theory administration or the public, in English, the general theory of administration, is a general theory about what is done by managers and how to establish good management practices. Important contributions to the theory comes from the French industrialist Henri Fayol with 14 principles of management and its German sociologist Max Weber with the concept of bureaucratic forms of organization, which was characterized by the division of labor, hierarchy, which didefinisikande with clear, detailed rules and provisions, and a number of Impersonal relationships.

Quantitative approach

Quantitative approach is the use of a number of quantitative techniques, such as statistics, optimization model, the model information, or computer-simulations to assist management in decision making. For example, linear programming used by managers to help take the policies of resources; analysis of the crisis point (Critical Path Analysis) can be used to make the scheduling work that is more efficient; model of economic order quantity (economic order quantity model) to help managers determine the optimum level of inventories , And others.

Development of quantitative emerged from the development of mathematics and statistics solutions to the problems the military during World War II. After the war ended, techniques of mathematics and statistics used to solve the problem of the military is applied in the business sector. Pelopornya is a group of military officers who dijuluki "Whiz Kids." The officer who joined Ford Motor Company in mid-1940's is using statistical methods and quantitative models to improve decision-making at Ford.

Hawthorne Study

Hawthrone study is a series of studies conducted in the 1920s until the 1930's. This study was originally aimed to learn the effects of various levels of lighting the lamp on work productivity. Study conducted in the Western Electric Company Works in Cicero, Illenois.

Pilot test was conducted with employees to share in the two groups, namely the control group and experiment groups. Group of the experiment are the subject of various kinds of light intensity while the control group worked under the intensity of light is fixed. The researchers expect any difference if the intensity of light changed. However, they get surprising results: the level of both light and dinaikan is derived, the output of workers is usually increased. The researchers can not explain what they see, they can only conclude that the intensity of light is not directly related to the productivity of the group and "other things that would" have caused the results.

In 1927, Elton Mayo Professor of Harvard and its colleagues were invited to join in this study. They then continue their research on the productivity of work in a way that other, for example, with redesigned departments, change the length of working hours and days working a week of nature, introducing the rest period, and the draft design of wages and the wages of individual groups. This research indicates that incentives, incentives on the effects of fewer workers compared with the output pressure groups, receiving groups, and the security attached to them. Researchers concluded that the social norms or standards group is the main behavior of individual work.

Academia generally agree that study gave Hawthrone this dramatic impact on the confidence the management of human perlikau role in the organization. Mayo concluded that:

* Behavior and sentiment have a very tight linkage
* The influence of groups are very large impact on the behavior of individual
* Standards determine the results of the working groups of each employee
* Money is not a determinant factor of output when compared with standard group, the sentiment, and feeling safe.

Conclusion conclusions that result in a new emphasis on the factors that determine human behavior as a function of the organization, and the achievement of the target organization.

Management functions

! Main article for this section are: management functions

Management functions are basic elements that will always be there and in the process inherent in the management of reference will be made by managers in the conduct of activities to achieve goals. Management functions first introduced by a French industrialist named Henry Fayol in the early 20th Century. Then, he mentioned the five management functions, namely to design, organize, govern, mengordinasi, and control. However, at this time, the fifth function has been summarized into four, namely planning, organizing, guidance, and control.

Planning is thinking about what will be done with the resources that are owned. Planning is done to determine the company's overall objectives and how best to meet that goal. Managers plan to evaluate various alternatives before taking action and then see whether the selected plan appropriate and can be used to meet company objectives. Planning is a process of all the important functions of management because without planning, other functions can not run.

The second is the function of organizing or Organizing. Organizing done with the purpose of dividing a large activities into the activities of the smaller. Organizing facilitate managers in the monitoring and determine who is required to carry out the tasks that have been divided for it. Organizing can be done by the task determine what should be done, who should do them, how tasks are grouped, who is responsible for the task, in which the decision must be taken.

Directions or directing an action is to organize so that all members of the group tried to reach the target in accordance with the planning and managerial business organizations. So actuating means is helping people to want to work with the full awareness of itself or together to achieve the desired objectives effectively. In this case, which is needed leadership (leadership).

Evaluating Pengevaluasian or are monitoring the process and controlling the performance of the company to ensure that the Company in accordance with the plan that has been set. A manager claimed to find that there are problems in operating the company, then solve the problem before it becomes greater.

Depth manager
The number of employees in the pyramid organization with the traditional structure, based on the rate.

In the traditional organization assesses without explaining, managers often be grouped into the top managers, middle-level managers, and first-line managers (usually described with forms of the pyramid, where the number of employees in large part from the top down). manejemen first-line (first-line management), also known by the terms of operational management, management level is the lowest responsible for overseeing the lead and non-managerial employees involved in the production process. They are often called Supervisor (supervisor), shift manager, area managers, office managers, department managers, or even foreman (Foreman). One is above the level of middle management or middle management level. Middle managers, including all management is among the first-line managers and top management and served as a communicator between the two. Department managers, including the middle of the head, the leader of the project, the factory manager, manager or division. In the top leaders of the organization there is top management that is often referred to the executive officer or top management. Duty to plan activities and strategies of the company in general and lead the way for the company. Examples of top management is the CEO (chief executive officer) and CFO (chief financial officer)

However, not all organizations can complete their work by using this traditional form of a pyramid. For example, the organization more flexible and simple, with the work done by a team of employees who always changed, shifting from one project to another project in accordance with the demand jobs.

The role of manager

Henry Mintzberg, a management science research specialist, said that there are ten roles played by managers in the work place. He then mengelompokan role to the tenth in the three groups, namely the role antarpribadi, informasional role, and the role of decision-making. Antarpribadi role is the role that involves people and other obligations, which are symbolic and ceremonial acts. Antarpribadi three roles include the role as the figure for children fruit, the leader, and communicator. Informasional roles include the role of the manager monitors and as a disseminator of information, and role as a spokesperson. The third role is the role of decision-making. Included in this group is a role as an entrepreneur, breaker problems, divide resources, and negotiator. Mintzberg and concluded that the outline, the activities carried out by the manager is to interact with other people.

Skills manager

Robert L. Katz in the 1970s revealed that every manager needs at least three basic skills. The first is skills, conceptual skills (conceptional skills). Top-level managers (top managers) must have the skills to make the concepts, ideas, and ideas for the progress of the organization. Idea or concept and the ideas must be explored and a plan of activities to realize the ideas or concepts. The process of translation of ideas into a work plan that kongkret is usually referred to as the planning process or planning. Therefore, also meruipakan skills, conceptual skills to create a work plan. Besides conceptual ability, managers also need to be equipped with skills or skills associated with other people, which is also called the humanitarian skills (Humanity skill). Persuasive communication, which should always be created by the manager to subordinate the dipimpinnya. Communication with the persuasive, friendly, and will create a kebapakan employees feel valued and then they will behave open to superiors. Skills needed, both in the top levels of management, middle, or lower. The third is skills, technical skills, which generally is a provision for managers in the lower level. This is a technical skills the ability to run a specific job, for example, using computer programs, improving the machine, making chairs, accounting and others.

In addition to the three basic skills at the top, Ricky W. Griffin in his book Business 8th Edition add two basic skills that managers need to be owned, the skills and time management skills to make decisions.

The ability of time management refers to the ability of a manager to use the time held the wise. Griffin submit a sample of cases Lew Frankfort of Coach. In 2004, as a manager, Frankfort earn $ 2,000,000 per year. If it is assumed that he worked for 50 hours per week with 2 weeks leave time, the salary of each jamnya Frankfort is $ 800 per hour, about $ 13 per minute. From there we can see that every minute wasted company will be very detrimental. Most managers, of course, have a salary that is far smaller than Frankfort. However, the time that they still have a valuable asset, and menyianyiakannya means a waste of money and reduce the productivity of the company.

Keterapilan second, the skills to make decisions, is the ability to define the problem and determine the best way solve. The ability to make decisions is the main one for the manager, especially for managers of the group (top managers). Griffin proposes three steps in making the decision. First, a manager must define the problem and find various alternatives that can be taken to solve them. Second, managers must evaluate every alternative to the existing and choose an alternative that is considered the best. And last, the manager must have an alternative to select and supervise it and mengevaluasinya to remain in the correct lane. (Griffin: 2006)

[edit] Facilities management
Man and machine, two of facilities management.

To achieve the goals that have been determined necessary equipment facilities (tools). Tools is a requirement for a business to achieve the results set. These tools, known as 6M, namely men, money, materials, machines, methods, and markets.

Man refers to the human resources that are owned by the organization. In management, human factors are the most determine. Human create a destination and also a human process to achieve the goal. Without any human process there is no work, basically because human beings are working. Therefore, management arise because of the people who work together to achieve the goal.

Money or Money is one of the elements that can not be ignored. Money is a means of exchange and gauge value. Large-small activities can be measured results from the amount of money circulating in the company. Therefore, the money is a tool (tools) that it is important to achieve the goal because everything must be calculated in a rational. This will be related to how the money should be provided to finance the salaries of workers, tools that are required and must be purchased and how the results will be achieved from an organization.

Material consists of semi-finished materials (raw materials) and material so. In the business world to achieve better results, other than a human expert in the field must also be able to use the materials / material as one of the facilities. For the material and human tidaki can be separated, without the material will not achieve the desired results.

Machine or machinery used to provide facilities or generate greater profits and create efesiensi work.

The method is a procedure that smoothing the way for the working manager job. A method daat expressed determination as a way of working with the task to provide various considerations to the target, facilities and the use of the available time and money and business activities. Keep in mind, although both methods, while those who do not understand or do not have the experience, the results will not be satisfactory. Thus, the main role in the management of human remains themselves.

Market or the market is the place where the distribution organization (market) products. Their products are of course very important goods if the goods produced is not behavior, then the process will stop production of goods. This means that the process will not work in progress. Therefore, control of the market in the sense disseminate the results of the production is a determining factor in the company. So that the market can be mastered, the quality and price of goods must be in accordance with the taste and purchasing power of consumers (the ability) to consumers.

Principles of management

Principles can be defined as a statement or a fundamental truth that is a general guideline to think or act. In conjunction with management, the principles are flexible in the sense that the need to consider in accordance with specific conditions and situation-sitauasi changed. This management principles formulated by Henry Fayol, a French industrialist.

Principles of general management (general principles of management) teridiri from:

* The division of labor (Division of the work)

The division of labor must be adjusted with the skills and expertise so that the implementation of effective work. Therefore, the placement of employees should use the principles of the right man in the right place. Must be rational division of work / objective, not subjective emotional, which is based on the basic like and dislike.

With the principle of the right man in the right place will provide a guarantee of stability, smoothness and efesiensi work. The division of labor that is key for both tenance work. carelessness in the division of labor will affect less than good and may cause failure in the job, therefore, an experienced manager who will place the division of labor as the main principles that will be the starting point for other principles.

* Authority and responsibility (Authority and responsibility)

Each employee is equipped with the authority to do the work and any inherent authority or accountability followed. Authority and responsibility must be balanced. Every job must be able to provide accountability in accordance with the authority. Therefore, more and more small little authority also questioned similarly vice versa.

The biggest responsibility lies on the top managers. The failure of a business is not located on the employees, but is located on the top leadership because they have wewemang is the largest manager peak. therefore, when top managers do not have the expertise and leadership, the authority that it is a boomerang.

* Discipline (Discipline)

Discipline is a feeling obedient and docile to the work of the responsibility. Discipline is closely related with the authorities. If the authority does not run properly, the discipline will be lost. Because of this, the holder of authority should be able to instill discipline disrinya own, so has the responsibility to pekerajaan accordance with the existing weweanng.

* Command Unity (Unity of command)

In melakasanakan work, employees should consider the principle of unity of command so that the work can be run properly. Employees must know to whom he must be responsible sesui with the authority that gained. The other came from the manager to serorang employees will damage the road authority and responsibility and division of labor.

* Union briefing (Unity of words)

In implementing the tasks and responsibilities, employees need to be directed toward the target. Unity are closely related with the division of labor. Unity briefing also depends on the unity of command. In the implementation of work can occur only two of command, resulting in the opposite direction. Therefore, the need to clear path from which employees get the authority to pmelaksanakan work and to whom he must know the limit of authority and responsibility to avoid mistakes. Implementation of the union briefing (unity of directiion) can not be separated from pembaguan work, authority and responsibility, discipline, command and unity.

* Rising interest above the interests of the organization itself

Each employee must subjugate their own interests to the interests of the organization. This is such a condition that is very important that every activity run by loancar so that the goal can be achieved with good

Setian employees can set their personal interests to have an awareness of the organization when the private interests that actually depends on the successful case the interests of the organization. The principles of dedication to the interests of private interests can be realized orgabisasi, apanila each employee feel so happy to have worked in the high discipline.

* Penggajian employees

Salary or wage for employees is the compensation that determine the smooth realization of the work. Employees covered feelings of panic and lack of will be difficult to concentrate on the tasks and obligations that can lead to imperfection in the work. Therefore, in principle penggajian day to ponder how employees can work calmly. System must be calculated to menimbuulkan discipline and working so fervency to compete for employees to make greater achievements. Principles of more pay for more Prestige (more efforts for better performance), and the principle of equal remuneration for the performance of the need to apply the same as when there is a difference will cause a decline in work and may not lead to disciplinary action.

* Pooled (Centralization)

Concentration of authority will lead to concentration of responsibility in certain activities. Tanggung jawab terakhir terletak ada orang yang memegang wewenang tertinggi atau manajer puncak. Pemusatan bukan berarti adanya kekuasaan untuk menggunakan wewenang, melainkan untuk menghindari kesimpangsiurang wewenang dan tanggung jawab. Pemusatan wewenang ini juga tidak menghilangkan asas pelimpahan wewenang (delegation of authority)

* Hirarki (tingkatan)

Pembagian kerja menimbulkan adanya atasan dan bawahan. Bila pembagian kerja ini mencakup area yang cukup luas akan menimbulkan hirarki. Hirarki diukur dari wewenang terbesar yang berada pada manajer puncak dan seterusnya berurutan ke bawah. dengan adanya hirarki ini, maka setiap karyawan akan mengetahui kepada siapa ia harus bertanggung jawab dan dari siapa ia mendapat perintah.

* Ketertiban (Order)

Ketertiban dalam melaksanakan pekerjaan merupakan syarat utama karena pada dasarnya tidak ada orang yang bisa bekerja dalam keadaan kacau atau tegang. Ketertiban dalam suatu pekerjaan dapat terwujud apabila seluruh karyawan, baik atasan maupun bawahan mempunyai disiplin yang tinggi. Oleh karena itu, ketertiban dan disiplin sangat dibutuhkan dalam mencapai tujuan.

* Keadilan dan kejujuran

Keadilan dan kejujuran merupakan salah satu syarat untuk mencapai tujuan yang telah ditentukan. Keadilan dan kejujuran terkait dengan moral karyawan dan tidak dapat dipisahkan. Keadilan dan kejujuran harus ditegakkan mulai dari atasan karena atasan memiliki wewenang yang paling besar. Manajer yang adil dan jujur akan menggunakan wewenangnya dengan sebaik-baiknya untuk melakukan keadilan dan kejujuran pada bawahannya.

* Stabilitas kondisi karyawan

Dalam setiap kegiatan kestabilan karyawan harus dijaga sebaik-baiknya agar segala pekerjaan berjalan dengan lancar. Kestabilan karyawan terwujud karena adanya disiplin kerja yang baik dan adanya ketertiban dalam kegiatan.

Manusia sebagai makhluk sosial yang berbudaya memiliki keinginan, perasaan dan pikiran. Apabila keinginannya tidak terpenuhi, perasaan tertekan dan pikiran yang kacau akan menimbulkan goncangan dalam bekerja.

* Prakarsa (Inisiative)

Prakarsa timbul dari dalam diri seseorang yang menggunakan daya pikir. Prakarsa menimbulkan kehendak untuk mewujudkan suatu yang berguna bagi penyelesaian pekerjaan dengan sebaik-beiknya. Jadi dalam prakarsa terhimpun kehendak, perasaan, pikiran, keahlian dan pengalaman seseorang. Oleh karena itu, setiap prakarsa yang datang dari karyawan harus dihargai. Prakarsa (inisiatif) mengandung arti menghargai orang lain, karena itu hakikatnya manusia butuh penghargaan. Setiap penolakan terhadap prakarsa karyawan merupakan salah satu langkah untuk menolak gairah kerja. Oleh karena itu, seorang manajer yang bijak akan menerima dengan senang hari prakarsa-prakarsa yang dilahirkan karyawannya.

* Semangat kesatuan, semangat korps

Setiap karyawan harus memiliki rasa kesatuan, yaitu rasa senasib sepenanggyungan sehingga menimbulkan semangat kerja sama yang baik. semangat kesatuan akan lahir apabila setiap karyawan mempunyai kesadaran bahwa setiap karyawan berarti bagi karyawan lain dan karyawan lain sangat dibutuhkan oleh dirinya. Manajer yang memiliki kepemimpinan akan mampu melahirkan semangat kesatuan (esprit de corp), sedangkan manajer yang suka memaksa dengan cara-cara yang kasar akan melahirkan friction de corp (perpecahan dalam korp) dan membawa bencana.

Etika manajerial

Etika manajerial adalah standar prilaku yang memandu manajer dalam pekerjaan mereka. Ricky W. Griffin dalam bukunya yang berjudul Business mengklasifikasikan etika manajerial ke dalam tiga kategori:

* Perilaku terhadap karyawan

Kategori ini meliputi aspek perekrutan, pemecatan, kondisi upah dan kerja, serta privasi dan respek. Pedoman etis dan hukum mengemukakan bahwa keputusan perekrutan dan pemecatan harus didasarkan hanya pada kemampuan untuk melakukan pekerjaan. Perilaku yang secara umum dianggap tidak etis dalam kategori ini misalnya mengurangi upah pekerja karena tahu pekerja itu tidak bisa mengeluh lantaran takut kehilangan pekerjaannya.

* Perilaku terhadap organisasi

Permasalahan etika juga terjadi dalam hubungan pekerja dengan organisasinya. masalah yang terjadi terutama menyangkut tentang kejujuran, konflik kepentingan, dan kerahasiaan. Masalah kejujuran yang sering terjadi di antaranya menggelembungkan anggaran atau mencuri barang milik perusahaan. Konflik kepentingan terjadi ketika seorang individu melakukan tindakan untuk menguntungkan diri sendiri, namun merugikan atasannya. Misalnya, menerima suap Sementara itu, masalah pelanggaran etika yang berhubungan dengan kerahasiaan di antaranya menjual atau membocorkan rahasia perusahaan kepada pihak lain.

* Perilaku terhadap agen ekonomi lainnya

Seorang manajer juga harus menjalankan etika ketika berhubungan dengan agen-agen ekonomi lain—seperti pelanggan, pesaing, pemegang saham, pemasok, distributor, dan serikat buruh.

Bidang manajemen

* Manajemen pergantian
* Manajemen komunikasi
* Manajemen constraint
* Manajemen biaya
* Manajemen hubungan pelanggan
* Manajemen harga pendapatan
* Manajemen enterprise
* Manajemen fasilitas
* Manajemen integrasi
* Manajemen pengetahuan
* Manajemen pemasaran
* Manajemen mikro
* Manajemen sakit
* Manajemen pandangan
* Manajemen procurement
* Manajemen program
* Manajemen projek
* Manajemen proses
* Manajemen produksi
* Manajemen kualitas
* Manajemen sumber daya
* Manajemen resiko
* Manajemen keahlian
* Manajemen pengeluaran
* Manajemen rantai suplai
* Manajemen sistem
* Manajemen waktu
* Manajemen stress
* Manajemen strategi
* Manajemen keuangan

A relational database management system or in known in English as a relational database management system (RDBMS) is a computer program (or in a more typical is a computer program) that are designed to set / memanajemen a database as a set of data that is stored in a structured, and operations on the data at the request of users. Examples are the use of the DBMS and many work in various fields, such as accounting, human resources management, and others. Although initially only the DBMS owned by companies that have large-scale computer equipment in accordance with the specifications of the standard required (at the standard required can be very high) to support a large amount of data, the current implementation is very much and adaptatif with the needs of the data specification For the rational can be owned and implemented by all circles as part of the investment company.

History of the term RDBMS

Edgar F. Codd introduced the term in this seminarnya paper entitled "A relational model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks". One of the definitions are quite widely known on a relational database system is for 12 law Codd. However, at the beginning of the implementation many relational models that do not follow all the elements contained in the law that Codd made terminologinya developed to describe a typical database system that is more extensive. In the scope of the system to meet the minimum criteria of the following:

* Presents data on the user in the form of relational (shown in tabular form, as a collection of tables where each table beriisi set of columns and rows)
* Provide the service relasioanl to manipulate the data in tabular form

The system is the first time in a relatively meet the implementation of a relational model is the Center for Scientific Studies IB, England, in Peterlee; IS1 (1970-1972) and the implementation of the follow PRTV (1973-1979). The first system sold as a commercial RDBMS is Multics relational data Srore in 1978. The other is the Berkeley Ingres quel, and BS12 IBM.

Utilization of the current

Against ketidaksepahaman There are several definitions of the "relational" from the DBMS.

The most popular definition of a RDBMS is often considered less accurate; forward some circles that the data serving as a collection of columns and rows have been enough to qualify as a RDBMS said. Tipikalnya, said a database system to meet the criteria as RDBMS meet when the laws are set in 12 legal Codd, but in fact had most database systems do not fully support the implementation of the laws of the Codd.

The other thought when a database system is not implementing the overall law Codd, the system can not be called as a relational. Views such as this, that many received by the theoretical circle and other circles, which adhere to the principles Codd, of course, will mendiskualifikasikan many database systems that are currently "not pure relational." In fact, the system databases using SQL (Structured Query Language) to access and modify data can not be said as RDBMS, according to this definition. Meanwhile, the supporters of the system database that is mentioned a database system that implements only some of the laws of Codd is called as Semi-Relasional/Pseudo-Relational Database Management System Database Management Systems (PRDBMS). For database management system that fully implementing the laws Codd is hereinafter referred to as Murni-Relasional/Trully-Relational Database Management System Database Management Systems (TRDBMS).

Currently, almost all RDBMS that apply SQL as a query language but also to provide and implement some other alternative. Alpora Dataphor is RDBMS available in a commercial to follow the full twelve laws Codd, and the second group known as the RDBMS.


Dynamic variation

Complaints that appear and are known in general to the existence RDBMS is the fact that implementation is currently seen as too "static". Spekulasipun appear on the possibility to create a new generation database system that uses a model "relational dynamic" with a column that can be made dynamically, the size of the developing dynamically, is defined dynamically. Each line can be implemented as a map (or dictionary larik asosiatif) and the fields that are not presented as a simple field empty. Some circles consider this the model relasioal pure, but the other protest that the use of a map is only as a detailed implementation. Thus, in this view, a column that is not found / no "in a simple but seen as a subject of interpretation and is considered as a way of serving i

Geographical Information System (English: Geographic Information System GIS abbreviated) is a special information system that manages data that has spatial information (bereferensi RELIGIOUS). Or in a more narrow sense, is a computer system that has the ability to build, store, manage and display the geographic information berefrensi, for example, the data identified by location, in a database. The practitioners also include people who build and operate it and the data as part of this system.

Geographical Information System technology can be used for scientific investigation, resource management, development planning, cartography and route planning. For example, GIS can help planners to quickly calculate the time when the emergency response to natural disaster occurs, or GIS can digunaan for wetland (Wetlands), which requires protection from pollution.

History of development

35,000 years ago, the cave walls in Lascaux, France, the Cro-hunter magnons drawing their prey animals, are also believed to be the line as the migration route the animals. Note this early in line with the two elements of the structure on a modern information system gegrafis now, the archive graphic linked to the database attributes.

In the years 1700s, modern survey techniques for topographical mapping is applied, including early versions of thematic mapping, for example, scholarly or census data.

Century to the early-20 shows the development of "photo Lithography", where the map is separated into several layers (layer). Development of computer hardware, which spurred by research to bring nuclear weapons into multifunction mapping applications in the early 1960s.

1967 is the initial development of the GIS can be applied in Ottawa, Ontario by the Department of Energy, Mines and Resources. Developed by Roger Tomlinson, who then called CGIS (Canadian GIS - GIS, Canada), used to store, analyze and process the data collected for the Canada Land Inventory (CLI - Canadian land inventory) - an initiative to know the ability of land in rural areas with Canada memetakaan various information on land, agriculture, tourism, nature, birds and land use on the scale of 1:250000. Factors of the classification also applied for analysis purposes.
GIS with gvSIG.

CGIS is the first system in the world, and results from improvements to the mapping application that has the ability to limp heap (overlay), calculation, pendijitalan / scanning (digitizing / scanning), coordinates national support system that extends above the continental United States, enter the line as arcs that have a topology and save the attributes and information lokasional in separate files. Pengembangya, a geografer named Roger Tomlinson then called "Mr. SIG."

CGIS survive until the year 1970 and takes a long time for improvement after initial development, and can not compete with commercial mapping applications, which issued several vendors such as Intergraph. Development of micro computer hardware vendor to drive the other as ESRI, CARIS, MapInfo and successfully make many features of GIS, merge approach to the separation of the first generation of spatial information and attributes, with a second-generation approach in the organization attribute data into the database structure. The development of industry in the 1980s and 1990s spur more growth in the GIS UNIX workstations and personal computers. At the end of the century to 20, the rapid growth in various systems dikonsolidasikan and distandarisasikan into fewer platforms, and users begin exporting displays GIS data via the Internet, which requires the standard format and transfer data.

Indonesia has adopted this system since the Pelita to-2 when LIPI invite UNESCO in preparing the "Policy and Program Development Stage Second Five Year (1974-1979)" in the development of science, technology and research.

Senior secondary education / senior high school education through the curriculum, geography remote sensing and GIS have been introduced since early. University of Indonesia in the Diploma in GIS program to open this D3 is a remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems, Faculty of Geography, University of Gadjah Mada, 1999. While the levels of S1 and S2 have been there since 1991 in the Department of cartography and remote sensing, Faculty of Geography, University of Gadjah Mada. So far, GIS has been developed almost by the universities in Indonesia through laboratory-laboratory, group study

What is the system?


The system is the group of two or more components or subsystems, which have interrelated functions with the same goal.

What is the System Information ?

Information system is a series of formal procedure in which the data is collected, processed and distributed information to the user.

The framework of the information system is divided into 2 main namely: Information Systems Management and Information System of Accounting.

What is the transaction?

Transactions are activities that affect or are part of the interest of the company that processed by the information system as a unit of work.

Transactions that there are financial and non-financial Accounting Information System

Accounting Information System (SIA) is an Information System, which handles everything related to accounting. Accounting itself is a System Information. The important functions of the SIA established on an organization, among others:

* Collecting and storing data on the activities and transactions.
* Processing of data into information to be used in the decision making process.
* Establishing a precise control of the assets the organization.

SIA said the various transaction processing and financial transactions nonkeuangan that directly affect the processing of financial transactions.

SIA consists of 3 subsystems:

* Transaction processing system

support the daily business operations.

* System of books / financial reporting

produce financial reports, such as reports profit / loss, balance sheet, cash flow, a tax refund.

* Management reporting system

which provides the internal management of various special purpose financial reports and information needed for decision making, such as budget, performance reports, and the report questioned.

Management Information System

Management Information System to process various non-financial transactions that can not be processed by the SIA normal.

How to Work

To understand how the SIA to work, need to answer some questions as the following:

* How to collect data related to transactions and activities of the organization?
* How to transform data into information so that management can use to run the organization?
* How to ensure availability, reliability, accuracy of the information?
* How to ensure availability, reliability, accuracy of the information?

Benefits

An SIA add value by:

* Provide accurate information and timely so that it can perform the main activity in the value chain effectively and efficiently.
* Improving the quality and reduce the cost of products and services produced
* Improving the efficiency
* Improving the ability in decision making
* Increase knowledge sharing
* Increase the work efficiency in the financial